INTRODUCTIONPlants are generally considered an important sourceof nutrients and food supplements since they are rich innutritive components essential for humans and animals.Growing scientific evidence that supports their healthbenefits has led to an increase in plant-based foods anddiets [1]. Seeds, which are key components of severalplant-based diets, are recognized as having a wide rangeof potential health benefits. Replacing energy-densefoods with high protein seeds has been shown to havebeneficial effects on the prevention and managementof obesity and related disorders, such as cardiovasculardisease, diabetes and the metabolic syndrome. A greatnumber of people in the world depend on conventionalplants to obtain remedies as pharmaceuticals. Medicinalplants are not only used as an alternative to traditionaltreatment if it does not exist, but they also provide anexcellent source of bioactive natural products [2].Acanthaceae is a tropical and subtropicalfamily of dicotyledonous flowering plants rich innutritional and medicinal components. It includes 346genera and around 4300 species distributed acrosstemperate regions, mostly in Indonesia, Malaysia,Africa, Brazil, and Central America. Some specieshave colorful flower petals and are used as a sourceof natural dyes. Chemically, Acanthaceae plantsCopyright © 2022, Mariod et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 InternationalLicense (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), allowing third parties to copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format and to remix,transform, and build upon the material for any purpose, even commercially, provided the original work is properly cited and states its license.Foods and Raw Materials, 2022, vol. 10, no. 1E-ISSN 2310-9599ISSN 2308-405768Mariod A.A. et al. Foods and Raw Materials, 2022, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 67–75contain important secondary metabolites such asglycosides, flavonoids, alkaloids, triterpenoids, fattyacid methyl esters, and fatty acids. These compoundsplay an important role in many biological reactionsand work against many lethal diseases [3]. Mostof the Acanthaceae species have high therapeuticapplications due to their alkaloid contents [4].Their leaves and seeds are used to treat bronchialdiseases, flu, and ulcers, as well as to relieve poisonousinsect and snake bites, dry cough, and diarrhea [5].Monechma Hochst., closely related to Justicia L., isan Acanthaceae genus that contains about 60 speciesmostly found in tropical and sub-tropical regions,particularly in South Africa. Monechma plants arewell adapted to harsh environments. As reported byDarbyshire and Goyder, twelve species are recordedin Angola, two of which have recently been addedto Monechma [6]. Although these two species aremorphologically similar, especially in flower and fruitmorphology, there is some morphological evidence tosupport their separation. In particular, there are notabledifferences in inflorescence form.Monechma ciliatum is a species with uniquebiochemicals and phytochemicals that make ittraditionally useful for many African communities,especially in rural areas. It shows significantantibacterial activity against Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcusaereus, Escherichia coli, and Pseudomonasaeraginosa, compared to well-known antibiotics,as well as antifungal activity against Cladosporiumcucumerinum and Candida albicans [7]. Studies ontheir seed extracts, seedcakes, and leaves reveal greatcontents of nutrients with antioxidant, antimicrobial andmedicinal properties [8].M. ciliatum mainly grows in tropical regions. It isfound in the west and southwest of Sudan where it iswell known and traditionally used. Owing to its smallbrownish black seeds, this species is referred to as blackmahlab, or El-Mahlab El-Aswad, in Sudan. In one ofour earlier works, we reported its richness in fat andother essential nutrients, as well as many benefits intraditional treatments and cosmetic uses [9]. Accordingto that study, the protein content of the M. ciliatumseed was 21%, with 783.3 mg/g N as total amino acid.The main fatty acids in M. ciliatum fat were oleic(47.3%), linoleic (31.4%), stearic (16.0%), and palmitic(4.5%). The content of tocopherols was 45.2 mg/100 g.Boiling, roasting, and germination are traditionalmethods generally used to improve the nutritionalproperties of seeds. Studies of the impact of cooking onthe nutrient contents in several seeds revealed changes intheir chemical composition and nutritional components.In another work, we studied the effect of introducingмahlab seed flour as a vegetarian food supplement onkisra (Sudanese bread made of sorghum flour) [10].Mahlab seeds were subjected to three industrialtreatments, namely boiling, roasting, and germination.The processed mahlab seed flour was added to sorghumflour and after the necessary fermentation, four samplesof supplemented kisra were made. We performedproximal chemical analysis and evaluated the sensoryparameters of the samples against those of conventionalsorghum kisra. The results showed that the use ofM. ciliatum seed flour as a supplement to sorghum kisrasignificantly improved its nutritional value. We alsofound that all the panelists gave 10% higher scores tosorghum kisra supplemented with roasted M. ciliatumseed flour, compared to the other samples.Mbah et al. reported an increase in protein, fiber,iron, and zinc contents in Morenga seeds as a resultof boiling and roasting. In another study, processingtechniques such as boiling, roasting, soaking, andblanching significantly (P < 0.05) reduced tyrosineand cystine contents in black gram (Vigna mungo), butincreased histidine [11, 12]. We also reported that boilingand roasting increased fat and protein contents and decreasedmoisture, carbohydrate, and fiber contents insafflower seeds [13]. We found that these processingmethods had an insignificant effect on fatty acids, whileGhazzawi and Ismail showed that roasting and fryingof nuts had a positive effect on the fatty acids profile andantioxidant activity [14].Roasted watermelon seeds have fewer benefits anda lower nutritional value compared to raw seeds. Theyare heated at about 160 degrees Celsius for only 15 minin order to give them a delicious roasting flavorwithout causing them to burn and lose their nutritionalvalue [15]. A study published in 2014 indicated thatroasting sesame seeds and their subsequent fermentationenhanced their nutrient content after they were groundto a fine powder [16]. Sesame roasting and peelingdecreased the content of phytates and oxalate, thecompounds that affect digestion and reduce proteinabsorption in the intestine. Therefore, it is preferable toeat peeled and roasted sesame.Muangrat et al. studied the effect of heat and timeof roasting and microwave treatment on the contentsof acids, free fatty acids, and iodine, as well as thesaponification and peroxide number of black sesameseed oil [17]. They found that the microwave-roastedoil samples showed higher antioxidant activity due to agreater content of total phenols, sesamol, and sesamolin.This indicates that both roasting and microwavetreatment are suitable methods to achieve better qualityfor black sesame oil products [17].Germination is an effective technique used toimprove the nutritional content of legume seeds. Itdecreases their fat content and increases mineralsand fatty acids, thus producing healthy nutrientswith bioactive components [18]. Ren et al. found thatgermination provided brown rice with considerableamounts of beneficial nutrients and bioactivecompounds [19]. Due to the high cost of animal protein,researchers conduct studies on plants as an affordablesource of protein. Including plant protein in the dailydiet can prevent malnutrition among poor people,especially in developing countries. Sranacharoenponget al. reported increasing numbers of stunted children69Mariod A.A. et al. Foods and Raw Materials, 2022, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 67–75in Africa. Stunting, or impaired growth, is caused bypoor nutrition [20]. Since M. ciliatum seeds are rich inprotein, fat, minerals, and other nutrients, they couldbe used to prevent this condition. These seeds are veryhard to mill so they are traditionally soaked in waterbefore milling. We aimed to study the impact of boiling,roasting, and germination processes on the compositionand nutritional contents of M. ciliatum seeds.STUDY OBJECTS AND METHODSMonechma ciliatum seeds (7 kg) were purchasedfrom a local market. The seeds were hand-sorted toremove broken seeds and foreign materials. Then,they were well cleaned with running tap water twiceand stored in white/clear reclosable self-seal zip lockpolyethylene bags (2.36”×3.94”, 4 Mil thick) at 25°C.Boiling of M. ciliatum seeds. 600 g of M. ciliatumseeds was put into three 1.0 L beakers, 200 g in each.Water was added at a ratio of 1:4 and boiled to 100°Cfor 40 min on a magnetic stirrer hot plate until theseeds were cooked. The seeds were drained and driedin a 50°C vacuum oven and then ground to 0.5–0.8 mmparticles in a grinder (Moulinex, Japan). Finally, theywere put into white/clear reclosable self-seal zip lockpolyethylene bags (2.36”×3.94”, 4 Mil thick) and storedin a refrigerator at 0–5°C at a relative humidity of55–65% for analysis.Roasting of M. ciliatum seeds. 500 g of washed anddried M. ciliatum seeds were arranged in 3 aluminumfoil dishes and then put in an electric air oven, asdescribed by Chirinos et al. with some modifications[21]. The seeds were roasted at 180°C for 20 min.The roasted seeds were left to cool to 25°C and thenwere ground to 0.5–0.8 mm particles in an electricgrinder (Moulinex, Japan). They were stored in arefrigerator at 0–5°C at a relative humidity of 55–65%for analysis.Germination of M. ciliatum seeds. In line with themethod described by de Jesus et al., 500 g of M. ciliatumseeds were soaked in 2500 mL of 0.7 g/L sodiumhypochlorite solution for 30 min at 25°C [22]. Then, theseeds were well washed with running tap water twice,drained, and soaked in deionized water for 5 h. Afterthat, they were kept between two layers of cotton clothfor 72 h at room temperature (25°C). The germinatedseeds were dried in an air oven at 60°C till constantweight. Then, they were ground to 0.5–0.8 mm particlesin an electric grinder (Moulinex, Japan) and stored in arefrigerator at 0–5°C at a relative humidity of 55–65%for further use. The control samples were only ground to0.5–0.8 mm particles in an electric grinder (Moulinex,Japan) and stored in the same conditions.Proximate chemical analysis. Moisture, crude fat,crude fiber, and ash were analyzed using the methodsof the Association of Official Analytical Chemists [23].Total nitrogen was analyzed by the micro-Kjeldahlmethod, with nitrogen converted to protein using thefactor of 6.25. The carbohydrate content was calculatedby subtracting the sum of fat, protein moisture, fiber, andash from 100.Mineral determination. 0.03 Ag ground samplewas put in a microwave vessel containing 5.0 mLof HNO3 and 2 mL of H2O2 (Suprapur, Merck).Then, it was heated to 205°C for 15 min to obtaina finely digested mixture. The mixture was left tocool to 25°C and a colorless solution was obtained.The solution was analyzed by inductively coupledplasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) according to themethod described by Ngigi and Muraguri with somemodifications [24].Fatty acid composition. Test seeds (15.0 g) wereground and their oil was separated in a Soxhlet extractor(Gerhardt), as indicated by the American Oil ChemistsSociety [25]. The removed oil was methylated andchanged over to fatty acid methyl esters. Then, it wasanalyzed on a Shimadzu GC-2010 gas chromatographwith a DB-23 column (60 m×0.25 mm ID, 0.25 μmfilm thickness). The injector, column, and indicatortemperatures were 230, 190, and 240°C, respectively.The split proportion was 80:1. Helium (1.0 mL/min) wasused as a transporter gas.Determination of tocopherols. A solution of 250 mgof black mahlab seeds oil in 25 mL n-heptane wasused for the high performance liquid chromatography(HPLC). The HPLC analysis was conducted using a lowpressuregradient system fitted with an L-6000 pump,an F-1000 fluorescence spectrophotometer (detectorwavelengths of 295 nm and 330 nm for excitation andemission, respectively), and a D-2500 integration system(Merck-Hitachi). 20 μL samples were injected by a655-A40 autosampler onto a 25 cm×4.6 mm ID Diolphase HPLC column (Merck, Darmstadt, Germany)at a flow rate of 1.3 mL/min. The mobile phase wasn-heptane/tert, butyl methyl ether (99+1, v/v) [26].Amino acid composition. A 200 mg sample wasdigested with 5.0 mL 6N HCL in a hydrolysis tube.The solution was incubated at 11°C for 24 h and filteredthrough filter paper. Then, 200 mL of the filteredsolution was evaporated at 140°C for about an hourand 1.0 mL of a diluted buffer was added to the driedsample. The amino acid composition of the hydrolyzedsample was determined on an S 433 automatic aminoacid analyzer (Sykam, Germany) [9].Statistical analysis. The analyses were performedin triplicate. The mean values and standard deviation(mean ± SD) were determined by Duncan’s test(P < 0.05). The measurable analysis of variance(ANOVA) was applied on all the values using aStatgrafics® Statistical Graphics System (version18.1.12).RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONThe weight of a hundred or thousand seeds is animportant characteristic of the seeds’ fullness andmaturity. It also indicates the amount of flour fromthe seeds [27]. In our study, the average length ofMonechma ciliatum seeds was about 4.0 mm and 100seeds weighed about 3.0 g.Proximate chemical composition of boiled,roasted, and germinated M. ciliatum seeds. The70Mariod A.A. et al. Foods and Raw Materials, 2022, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 67–75seeds’ chemical composition is very important becausethey contain many nutrients and growth materials thataffect germination. Seeds are considered a basic sourceof food. For example, Chia (Salvia hispanica) seeds areused as ingredients or supplements in many foodstuffssuch as baked products, muesli, dairy drinks, fruitsmoothies, or salads. They are also used as thickenersin soups and sauces [28]. The proximate compositionsof untreated black mahlab (UM), boiled black mahlab(BM), roasted black mahlab (RM), and germinatedblack mahlab (GM) seeds are presented in Table l.Moisture content. The seed’s moisture, which isusually expressed as a percentage on a wet weight basis,is an important indicator that affects the seed’s qualityand shelf-life. In our study, the moisture content ofuntreated black mahlab seeds was 9.43%, while boiling,roasting, and germination decreased it to 6.91, 6.41, and9.41%, respectively. This finding was consistent withthe one we made in our earlier study, namely a decreasein the moisture of crude safflower seeds after roastingand boiling [29]. Hatamian et al., who studied chiaseeds, also found a diminished moisture content afterroasting [30].Fat content. The fat contents of untreated andtreated black mahlab seeds are shown in Table 1. TheUM seed flour had a fat content of 11.65%, which waslower than 14.66% for BM and 12.39% for RM, buthigher than 11.30% for GM. As we can see, boiling androasting increased the fat content, while germinationhad an insignificant effect on this indicator. This resultdisagreed with Onyeike and Oguike, who showed thatcrude fat was highest in raw groundnut seeds and lowestin boiled groundnut seeds [31].Protein content. Proteins are essential nutrients forthe human body. They are the basic units of body tissueand can also serve as an energy source. Proteins provideas much energy density as sugars. Most importantlyfor nutrition is that protein contains amino acids [32].The protein contents of untreated and treated blackmahlab seeds are shown in Table 1. We found that allthe processing methods increased the protein content.Amounting to 22.29% in UM, it increased to 23.89,22.90, and 24.34% in BM, RM, and GM, respectively.Thus, boiling and germination contributed to a higherprotein content, unlike roasting. This finding wasconsistent with that in our earlier study, where thegermination of black cumin increased both the oil andthe protein contents, while other constituents decreased[29]. In a study by Olanipekun et al., the flour fromprocessed kidney bean seeds had a significantly higherprotein content than that of the raw seeds [33]. Cargo-Froom et al. reported that boiling and roasting enhancedthe pulses’ protein content, availability, and digestibility,as well as the content of essential amino acids [34].Similarly, Mbah et al. showed that boiling and roastingincreased the protein content in Moringa seeds [11].The higher protein content in the processed seeds mightbe due to the increase of proteolytic enzymes activitywhich hydrolyzed proteins to their amino acids duringprocessing.Fiber content. Dietary fiber includes parts of plantfood that the body cannot digest or absorb. Unlike otherfood components (fats, proteins, or carbohydrates),which the body breaks down and absorbs, fiber passesrelatively well through the stomach, small intestine, andcolon, and then out of the body [35]. The fiber contentin untreated and treated black mahlab seeds is shown inTable 1. As we can see, it reached 9.2, 10.1, 9.0, and 9.9%in UM, BM, RM, and RM, respectively. It was slightlyaffected by roasting and germination and increasedby boiling. This result agreed with Mbah et al. whoreported that boiling and roasting increased the fibercontent in Moringa seeds [11]. However, it was opposedto our earlier finding that roasting and boiling decreasedthe fiber content in safflower [13].Carbohydrate content. Carbohydrates are a groupof organic compounds that include sugars, starches,and fibers that provide the body with energy. Duringdigestion, carbohydrates are converted into glucosesugar. The pancreas secretes insulin to help glucosesugar enter the cells in the brain and muscles andprovide them with the energy needed to performvarious functions. The excess of glucose sugar is storedin the liver in the form of glycogen to be used whenneeded [36]. The carbohydrate contents of untreatedand treated black mahlab seeds are shown in Table 1.As we can see, the total available carbohydrates in UM,BM, RM, and GM amounted to 43.60, 40.89, 45.62,and 41.39%, respectively. The carbohydrate contentwas the highest in RM followed by UM, GM, and BM.Our findings agreed with those of Onyeike and Oguike,who reported that boiling and frying increased the totalcarbohydrate content in groundnuts [31]. This indicatesthat M. ciliatuim flour is a good source of energy forconsumers.Ash content. The ash contents in untreated andtreated black mahlab seeds are shown in Table 1. TheTable 1 Approximate chemical analysis of raw, boiled, roasted, and germinated Monechma ciliatuim seeds, %Sample Moisture Fat, % Carbohydrate, % Protein, % Fiber, % Ash, %Untreated mahlab 9.43 ± 0.03b 11.56 ± 0.37 a 43.60 ± 0.70 a 22.29 ± 0.23a 9.20 ± 0.22 a 3.92 ± 0.10aBoiled mahlab 6.91 ± 0.01a 14.66 ± 0.31c 40.89 ± 0.50 b 23.89 ± 0.29b 10.11 ± 0.14b 3.54 ± 0.10 aRoasted mahlab 6.14 ± 0.11a 12.39 ± 0.25b 45.62 ± 0.70c 22.90 ± 0.13 a 9.00 ± 0.23 a 3.95 ± 0.20 aGerminated mahlab 9.41 ± 0.30b 11.30 ± 0.08 a 41.39 ± 0.20d 24.34 ± 0.17b 9.90 ± 0.29 a 3.66 ± 0.10 aValues are means of triplicate determinations. a,b,c,d Means in the same column followed by the same superscript are not significantly different atP < 0.0571Mariod A.A. et al. Foods and Raw Materials, 2022, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 67–75ash content in UM was 3.92%. Insignificantly affectedby all processing techniques, it amounted to 3.95, 3.66,and 3.45% in RM, GM, and BM, respectively.Mineral content in boiled, roasted, and germinatedM. ciliatum seeds. The mineral compositions ofuntreated, boiled, roasted, and germinated black mahlabseeds are presented in Table 2. The concentrations ofmajor and trace elements in the untreated seeds weresignificantly (P < 0.05) higher than in the processedseeds. Table 2 shows how boiling, roasting, andgermination affected sodium, calcium, potassium,copper, iron, zinc, magnesium, manganese, selenium,and phosphorus contents in M. ciliatum seeds. As wecan see, the three processing treatments varied in theireffects on the mineral contents.The sodium (Na) content in UM was 264.1 mg/kg.This value insignificantly decreased to 251.6 mg/kg inBM, significantly decreased to 227.4 mg/kg in RM, andinsignificantly increased to 270.7 mg/kg in GM.The calcium (Ca) content in UM was 4911 mg/kg.After treatment, it significantly decreased to 4158.5,4666.3, and 3880.3 mg/kg in BM, RM, and GM,respectively. The roasted sample had the highest contentof calcium.The potassium (K) content in UM was 7812.7 mg/kg.After treatment, it decreased significantly to4787.6 mg/kg in BM and insignificantly to 7702.6 and7140.0 mg/kg in RM and GM, respectively. The roastedM. ciliatum seeds had the highest content of potassium.The copper (Cu) content in UM was 12.40 mg/kg.It did not change significantly after the treatments,amounting to 12.11, 11.53, and 11.73 mg/kg in BM, RM,and GM, respectively.The iron (Fe) content in UM was 166.5 mg/kg.After treatment, it significantly decreased to 59.2 and89.6 mg/kg in BM and RM, respectively, andinsignificantly decreased to 162.2 mg/kg in GM.The zinc (Zn) content in UM was 23.66 mg/kg.After treatment, it significantly decreased to 19.67 and21.36 mg/kg in BM and RM, respectively, andinsignificantly decreased to 22.88 mg/kg in GM. Thegerminated sample was the richest in zinc.The magnesium (Mg) content in UM was4747.2 mg/kg. After treatment, it significantly decreasedto 4387.6 and 4367.3 mg/kg in BM and GM, respectively.However, roasting had no significant effect on themagnesium content, which amounted to 4747.6 mg/kgin RM.The manganese (Mn) content in UM was93.19 mg/kg. This value significantly decreased aftertreatment, amounting to 66.02, 84.79, and 67.36 mg/kgin BM, RM, and GM, respectively. The roasted samplewas the richest in manganese.The selenium (Se) content in UM was 0.56 mg/kg. Itdid not change significantly after boiling, amounting to0.54 mg/kg in BM. However, it significantly decreasedto 0.26 and 0.41 mg/kg in RM and GM, respectively.The phosphorus (P) content in UM was3059.5 mg/kg. It did not change significantly aftergermination, amounting to 3002.7 mg/kg in GM.However, it significantly increased to 3118.8 and3205.8 mg/kg in BM and RM, respectively. The roastedsample had the highest content of phosphorus.Thus, the three processing treatments generallydecreased the contents of minerals in the raw seeds.Sodium was decreased by boiling and roasting,but increased by germination. Iron and zinc wereinsignificantly affected by boiling and roasting.Magnesium was not affected by roasting but it wasdecreased by boiling and germination. Selenium slightlydiminished with boiling but significantly diminishedafter roasting and germination. However, the roastingtechnique contributed most to the minerals retention,followed by germination and then boiling. This might bedue to the fact that minerals leached from the seeds intodistilled water at different rates during cooking. Thisresult agreed with Kinge et al., who reported that boilingand roasting of Djansang (Ricinondron heudelotii) seedssignificantly increased the amount of phosphorous, iron,calcium, and magnesium [37]. Boiling retained thoseminerals better than roasting. However, the amountsof potassium and sodium were significantly lower inthe boiled samples compared to the roasted ones. Theirstudy concluded that the roasting process preservedminerals better than boiling. Our findings were alsoconsistent with the ones we made earlier, namely thatthe contents of major elements in raw safflower seedswere higher than in the roasted and boiled seeds [13].According to Table 2, only sodium and phosphorus weresignificantly increased by germination and roasting,respectively.Fatty acid composition of the oil from boiled,roasted, and germinated M. ciliatum seeds. Thehuman body uses essential fatty acids (EFAs) toproduce healthy cell membranes and benefit from theirTable 2 Effects of boiling, roasting, and germination on the mineral contents (g/kg) in Monechma ciliatum seedsSample Na Ca K Cu Fe Zn Mg Mn Se PUntreated mahlab 264.1a 4911.2a 7812.7a 12.40a 166.5a 23.66a 4747.2a 93.19a 0.56a 3059.5aBoiled mahlab 251.6b 4158.5b 4787.6b 12.11a 59.2d 19.67b 4387.6b 66.02b 0.54a 3118.9bRoasted mahlab 227.4c 4666.3c 7702.6c 11.53b 89.6c 21.36a 4747.6a 84.79c 0.26b 3205.8cGerminated mahlab 270.7d 3880.3d 7140.0d 11.73b 162.5b 22.88a 4367.2b 67.36d 0.41c 3002.7dValues are means of triplicate determinations ± S.D. a,b,c,d Means in the same column followed by the same superscript are not significantlydifferent at P < 0.0572Mariod A.A. et al. Foods and Raw Materials, 2022, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 67–75multiple biological roles. In particular, they influencethe inflammatory cascade, reduce the oxidative stress,and provide neural and cardiovascular protection.A significant factor in various illnesses, fatty acidlevels are used to distinguish potential biomarkersfor a few pathologies, for example, polycystic ovarycondition [38]. Some treatments, such as progressiveheating, can influence the arrangement of fatty acids infood [39].The compositions of fatty acids in untreated andtreated M. ciliatum seed oils (UM, BM, RM, and GM)determined by gas chromatography are presented inTable 3. As we can see, oleic and linoleic were themajor fatty acids. The untreated sample had 68.15% ofunsaturated fatty acids and 31.40% of saturated fattyacids. Boiling slightly changed the composition ofunsaturated fatty acids and decreased the content ofsaturated fatty acids to 22.82%. Palmitic acid increasedfrom 6.11% in UM to 31.80 and 21.80% in RM and GM,respectively. Myristic acid increased from 0.14% inthe untreated seeds to 4.46 and 8.43% in RM and GM,respectively. Oleic and linoleic acids decreased from44.87 and 16.84% in the untreated samples to 39.21and 10.26% in RM and to 29.40 and 9.16% in GM,respectively. It was clear that roasting and germinationincreased the content of saturated fatty acids anddecreased that of unsaturated fatty acids. These resultsdisagreed with our previous study, where fatty acidsof black cumin seeds did not change with roasting andboiling [29]. Ali et al. found that the relative contentof polyunsaturated fatty acids decreased while thatof saturated fatty acids increased in groundnut seedoil exposed to microwave heating [35]. However, theroasting process slowed down the oxidative deteriorationof polyunsaturated fatty acids.Tocopherol composition of the oil from boiled,roasted, and germinated M. ciliatum seeds.Tocopherols are fat-soluble compounds with vitamin E.This is a term for eight different molecules, namely α-,β-, γ-, δ-tocopherol, and the corresponding tocotrienols.The activity of vitamin E in humans is related toits antioxidant properties. It is synthesized only inphotosynthetic organisms and acts as a protectivecomponent. Tocopherol has also been found to be crucialfor seed storage and germination [40]. The nutritionalbenefits of vitamin E (α-tocopherol) and its importancein the daily diet have been well documented. Thecontents of total tocopherols in treated and untreatedM. ciliatum seeds oil are shown in Table 3. As we cansee, the total tocopherol concentration decreased duringboiling and roasting as a result of heating. However,it was significantly increased by germination. Inparticular, the content of tocopherols in the untreated oilwas 0.11 mg/100 g. This amount was affected equallyby boiling and roasting, decreasing to 0.10 mg/100 g inboth BM and RM. Germination, however, increased it to0.18 mg/100 g. Our results agreed with Junmin et al.,who reported that the roasting of sesame seeds at 160°Cfor 30 min led to a steady decrease in total tocopherolsand sesamolin [41].Amino acid composition in boiled, roasted, andgerminated M. ciliatum seeds. Table 4 shows theamino acid composition in the treated and untreatedM. ciliatum seeds. Generally, amino acids increasedwith boiling, roasting, and germination, except formethionine acid which was decreased by all thetreatments. Aspartic acid and lysine were decreasedby roasting. Total amino acids in the untreated blackmahlab seeds amounted to 22.291 g/100 g. Theyincreased to 23.894, 22.899, and 24.336 g/100 g in theboiled, roasted, and germinated samples, respectively.The roasted sample had the lowest content of totalamino acids due to the decrease in aspartic acid andlysine. These results were in agreement with thoseTable 3 Boiling, roasting, and germination effects on fatty acids (%) and tocopherols (mg/100 g) in Monechma ciliatum seed oilFatty acids Untreated mahlab Boiled mahlab Roasted mahlab Germinated mahlabC12 Lauric 0.859a 1.807b 2.258c 20.427dC14 Myristic 0.140a 0.124a 4.462b 8.433cC16 Palmitic 6.116a 6.495a 31.804b 21.806cC18 Stearic 3.238a 3.236a 6.135b 3.806aC20 Archidic 9.183a 9.020a – –C22 Behenic 0.839a 0.829a – –C23 Tricosanoic 7.033a 6.626b – –C24 Lignoceric 3.994a 3.709a – –C16:1 Pamitoleic 0.251a 0.270a 4.083b 2.177cC18:1 Oleic 44.878a 44.420a 39.216b 29.408cC18:2 Linoleic 16.480a 16.734a 10.264b 9.159cC20:1 Eicosenoic 6.545a 6.453a 1.378b 0.73cSaturated 31.402a 22.826b 45.059c 54.203dUnsaturated 68.154a 67.881b 54.941c 41.475dTocopherol 0.11a 0.10a 0.10a 0.18ba,b,c,d Means in the same row followed by the same superscript are not significantly different at P < 0.05Table 4 Boiling, roasting, and germination effects on amino acids in Monechma ciliatum seeds, g/100 gAmino acid Untreated mahlab Boiled mahlab Roasted mahlab Germinated mahlabAspartic acid 2.294 2.349 2.285 2.514Serine 1.555 1.665 1.576 1.676Glumatic acid 2.485 3.679 3.386 3.824Glycine 1.165 1.224 1.243 1.229Histidine 0.525 0.559 0.586 0.525Arginine 2.532 2.930 2.889 2.889Therionine 1.014 1.111 1.092 1.096Alanine 1.130 1.207 1.170 1.213Proline 1.157 1.276 1.198 1.306Threonine 0.695 0.744 0.743 0.750Valine 1.215 1.318 1.262 1.354Methionine 0.300 0.000 0.023 0.000Lysine 1.386 1.453 1.246 1.462Isoleucine 1.009 1.123 1.061 1.124Leucine 1.912 2.130 2.003 2.112Phenylalanine 1.017 1.124 1.134 1.164Total 22.291 23.894 22.899 24.336Values are means ± SDin our earlier work, where we observed extremelyhigh contents of amino acids in the boiled and roastedsafflower seeds, compared to the fresh samples [13].This finding was also consistent with that of ELSuhaibaniet al., who found that germination andcooking of goat pea (Securigera securidaca L.) seedsincreased the proportion of essential amino acids [42].They also reported that soaking and cooking processesincreased valine, phenylalanine, isoleucine, and leucine,but reduced methionine and lysine. Our results disagreedwith those reported by Nwosu et al., who found thatboiling black gram (Vigna mungo) seeds for 120 mingenerally decreased the concentration of leucine, lysine,and arginine [12]. Blanching and soaking improvedthe concentrations of lysine, isoleucine, and histidine,compared to the control samples.CONCLUSIONGenerally, most of the nutritional factors wereenhanced by processing treatments. All the treatmentsincreased protein and amino acids. Boiling and roastingincreased the fat content, while boiling and germinationincreased the fiber content. Saturated fatty acids werehigher and unsaturated fatty acids were lower inthe roasted and germinated samples. Minerals weredecreased by all the treatments, except for sodiumwhich increased in the germinated sample. Our resultscan be applied in large-scale research experimentswith Monechma ciliatum seeds used as a food product,supplement, or ingredient in new products.CONTRIBUTIONAbdalbasit Adam Mariod conceived and designedthe analysis, contributed data and analysis tools, andwrote the paper. Eshraga Mustafa Abdalrahman Mustafacollected the data, performed the analysis, and wrotethe paper. Mahdi Abbas Shakak contributed data andanalysis tools and wrote the paper.CONFLICT OF INTERESTThe authors declare that there is no conflict ofinterest related to this article.ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThe first author thanks the Dean of ScientificResearch, University of Jeddah, KSA for the financialsupport. The present study was supported by the grantnumber UJ-24-18-DR University of Jeddah, KSA.