Foods and Raw Materials Foods and Raw Materials Foods and Raw Materials 2308-4057 2310-9599 48717 10.21603/2308-4057-2022-1-86-96 Research Article Research Article Research Article 137Cs and 40K activity concentrations in edible wild mushrooms from China regions during the 2014–2016 period 137Cs and 40K activity concentrations in edible wild mushrooms from China regions during the 2014–2016 period https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2347-1660 Saniewski Michał Saniewski Michał michal.saniewski@imgw.pl https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2547-2496 Falandysz Jerzy Falandysz Jerzy https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1030-8258 Zalewska Tamara Zalewska Tamara Institute of Meteorology and Water Management – National Research Institute Gdynia Польша Institute of Meteorology and Water Management – National Research Institute Gdynia Poland Medical University of Lodz Lodz Польша Medical University of Lodz Lodz Poland Institute of Meteorology and Water Management – National Research Institute Gdynia Польша Institute of Meteorology and Water Management – National Research Institute Gdynia Poland 30 03 2022 30 03 2022 10 1 86 96 25 10 2021 10 12 2021 https://jfrm.ru/en/issues/7477/7447/

Introduction. Contamination by radiocaesium of edible wild mushrooms after major nuclear accidents is a long-lasting process in some regions of the world. Following greater awareness of radioactive pollution in Asia, particularly after the Fukushima accident, this study investigated the radioactivity of 137Cs and 40K contamination in edible wild mushrooms in China. Study objects and methods. The objects of the research were edible wild mushrooms collected during 2014 to 2016, from the Inner Mongolian and Yunnan regions of China. To obtain an insight into any environmental impacts to distant regions of mainland Asia, the mushrooms were analyzed for 137Cs activity. In parallel, the natural activity of 40K was also determined and used to estimate the content of total K. The topsoil underneath the mushrooms was also investigated from a few sites in Bayanhushu in Inner Mongolia in 2015. Results and discussion. The results showed that in 4 to 6 mushrooming seasons after the accident, mushrooms from both regions were only slightly contaminated with 137Cs, which implied negligible consequences. The activity concentrations of 137Cs in dried caps and whole mushrooms in 63 of 70 lots from 26 locations were well below 20 Bq kg–1 dry weight. Two species (Lactarius hygrophoroides L. and Lactarius volemus L.), from Jiulongchi in Yuxi prefecture showed higher 137Cs activities, from 130 ± 5 to 210 ± 13 Bq kg–1 dw in the caps. 40K activities of mushrooms were around two- to three-fold higher. A composite sample of topsoil (0–10 cm layer) from the Bayanhushu site (altitude 920 m a.s.l.) in Inner Mongolia showed 137Cs activity concentration at a low level of 6.8 ± 0.7 Bq kg–1 dw, but it was relatively rich in potassium (40K of 595 ± 41 Bq kg–1 and total K of 17000 ± 1000 mg kg–1 dw). Conclusion. Wild mushrooms from the Yunnan and Inner Mongolia lands only slightly affected with radioactivity from artificial 137Cs. Lack of 134Cs showed negligible impact from Fukushima fallout. Ionizing radiation dose from 137Cs in potential meals was a fraction of 40K radioactivity. The associated dietary exposure to ionizing irradiation from 137Cs and 40K contained in mushrooms from the regions studied was considered negligible and low, respectively. Mushroom species examined in this study are a potentially good source of dietary potassium.

Introduction. Contamination by radiocaesium of edible wild mushrooms after major nuclear accidents is a long-lasting process in some regions of the world. Following greater awareness of radioactive pollution in Asia, particularly after the Fukushima accident, this study investigated the radioactivity of 137Cs and 40K contamination in edible wild mushrooms in China. Study objects and methods. The objects of the research were edible wild mushrooms collected during 2014 to 2016, from the Inner Mongolian and Yunnan regions of China. To obtain an insight into any environmental impacts to distant regions of mainland Asia, the mushrooms were analyzed for 137Cs activity. In parallel, the natural activity of 40K was also determined and used to estimate the content of total K. The topsoil underneath the mushrooms was also investigated from a few sites in Bayanhushu in Inner Mongolia in 2015. Results and discussion. The results showed that in 4 to 6 mushrooming seasons after the accident, mushrooms from both regions were only slightly contaminated with 137Cs, which implied negligible consequences. The activity concentrations of 137Cs in dried caps and whole mushrooms in 63 of 70 lots from 26 locations were well below 20 Bq kg–1 dry weight. Two species (Lactarius hygrophoroides L. and Lactarius volemus L.), from Jiulongchi in Yuxi prefecture showed higher 137Cs activities, from 130 ± 5 to 210 ± 13 Bq kg–1 dw in the caps. 40K activities of mushrooms were around two- to three-fold higher. A composite sample of topsoil (0–10 cm layer) from the Bayanhushu site (altitude 920 m a.s.l.) in Inner Mongolia showed 137Cs activity concentration at a low level of 6.8 ± 0.7 Bq kg–1 dw, but it was relatively rich in potassium (40K of 595 ± 41 Bq kg–1 and total K of 17000 ± 1000 mg kg–1 dw). Conclusion. Wild mushrooms from the Yunnan and Inner Mongolia lands only slightly affected with radioactivity from artificial 137Cs. Lack of 134Cs showed negligible impact from Fukushima fallout. Ionizing radiation dose from 137Cs in potential meals was a fraction of 40K radioactivity. The associated dietary exposure to ionizing irradiation from 137Cs and 40K contained in mushrooms from the regions studied was considered negligible and low, respectively. Mushroom species examined in this study are a potentially good source of dietary potassium.

 Asia forest fungi pollution soil radioactivity radiocaesium wild food Asia forest fungi pollution soil radioactivity radiocaesium wild food

INTRODUCTIONRadiocaesium (134/137Cs), if not mention the shortlivedradioactive 131I (t0.5 = 8.02 days), is the main massand a long-term source of the toxic radiation, pollutingthe Earth in the past from the nuclear weapon explosionsand nuclear power plant accidents [1, 2].Macromycetes (fungi) can accumulate variouselements in their fruiting bodies, including radioactiveisotopes (134Cs, 137Cs, 40K, 210Po, 210Pb, 238Pu, 239+240Pu,90Sr, 230Th, 232Th, 234U, 238U) emitting radiation ofvarious toxicities [3–9]. Many wild fungi are effectiveaccumulators of artificial radioactive cesium, whichcirculates in forest ecosystems for years in contaminatedareas and can cause a potential health hazard fromingestion of the mushrooms [2, 10–14].Radiocaesium (137Cs) is an artificial and long-lived(t0.5 = 30.1 years) nuclide, which appeared in mushroomsafter global fallout from nuclear weapons detonations in87Saniewski M. et al. Foods and Raw Materials, 2022, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 86–96the atmosphere. High levels of radioactivity reappearedfollowing the collapse of the Chernobyl nuclear powerplant in 1986, including massive levels of 134Cs and137Cs emissions [15]. The consequent radioactive falloutcaused a long-lasting and substantial contaminationwith 137Cs of forest ecosystems including mushrooms inregions surrounding the collapsed plant, especially inthe Ukraine, Belarus and Russia, as well as elsewhere inEurope [16–23].As in Chernobyl, a similar accident occurredin Japan in March 2011, where, following a majorearthquake, a 15-meter tsunami disabled the powersupply and cooling systems of three Fukushima Daiichinuclear power plant reactors. All three cores largelymelted in the first three days, caused radioactivecontamination of the environment on a large scale,including high 137Cs pollution of fungi growing in theregion [24–26].The nuclear accidents caused long-term psychosocialconsequences on exposed individuals. One of theconsequences was that big game and domesticatedruminants that eat contaminated mushrooms couldbe also heavily loaded with 137Cs [27–29]. In humans,mushrooms can be also the most important exposureroute to 137Cs when there is elevated consumption of wildspecies [30]. As mentioned, contamination by 137Cs afterthe Chernobyl accident as well as atomic weapon testingis a long-lasting process in some mushroom species evencollected relatively away from this source [12–14].The contribution of the 137Cs fallout from theChernobyl accident to ecosystems in distant places likethe Japanese islands was considered small compared tothe previous global fallout [31]. The Chernobyl fallouthad also some impacts on continental Asia. In China,soils (layer 0–10 cm) sampled from 56 sites in the InnerMongolia province in 1982–1987 showed 137Cs meanactivity concentration of 13.6 ± 6.6 Bq kg–1 dry weight(dw) (from 5.8 ± 4.4 to 23.4 ± 13.4 Bq kg–1 dw) [32]. Soilfrom Yunnan province was also contaminated, showingactivity of 6.2 ± 5.4 Bq kg–1 dw (from 1.9 ± 0.3 to31.6 ± 0.8 Bq kg–1 dw) in 1982–1987 [33].The accident in the Fukushima nuclear power plantcaused a high alert on a direct and indirect radioactivepollution consequences regarding to exposed staffand local residents. It affected public health and foodssafety in Japan, as well as continental Asia fromserious accidental discharge and included studies on theconsequence to various types of environmental mediaincluding soils, vegetation and wild growing mushrooms[25, 34–46].Edible mushrooms collected from the wild arecommon foodstuffs in Yunnan, a land diverse inclimate, soil, forest types and landscape topography andwith a high biodiversity of mushroom species [47, 48].Certain species are conditionally edible or medicinalmushrooms, e.g. Caloboletus calopus (Pers.) Vizzinior Tricholoma sejunctum (Fr. ex Sow.) Quél. InnerMongolia has an area of 1 183 000 km2 (457 000 sq mi)with a landscape made up largely of meadows with anabundance of saprobic mushrooms. This region is poorin ectomycorrhizal mushrooms, a result of the limitedwooded areas, apart from the thickets along the HuangHe River [49].To get greater awareness of radioactive pollution inAsia, particularly after the Fukushima accident, thisstudy investigated the radioactivity contamination with137Cs and 40K of edible wild mushrooms from the InnerMongolian and Yunnan provinces of China. The activityconcentrations of 137Cs and 40K were studied for thefirst time in wild mushrooms (five species) from InnerMongolia and also in more than 26 species, includingtaxa without previous data on 137Cs, from Yunnan,collected during 2014–2016.STUDY OBJECTS AND METHODSMushroom and topsoil samples. Mushroomswere collected from the Inner Mongolia province(approximate distance from Fukushima Daiichi powerplant site is 2500 km). They all represented saprobicspecies and included Agaricus arvensis Schaeff,Calocybe gambosa (Fr.) Donk, Calvatia gigantea(Batsch) Lloyd, Macrolepiota excoriata (Schaeff.)Wasser and Lepista personata (Fr.:Fr) Sing. The 26species collected from Yunnan province (distancefrom Fukushima is in the range of 3500 to 4500 km)included Auricularia delicata (Fr.) Henn, Baorangiabicolor (Kuntze), Boletus bainiugan Dentinger, Boletusferrugineus Schaeff., Hemileccinum impolitum (Fr.)Šutara, Boletus reticulatus Schaeff., Butyriboletusroseoflavus, Boletus tomentipes Earle, Caloboletuscalopus (previous name Boletus calopus Fr.), Neoboletusbrunneissimus (W.F. Chiu), Retiboletus griseus (Frost),Rubroboletus sinicus (W.F. Chiu), Sutorius magnificus(W.F. Chiu), Sutorius obscureumbrinus (Hongo),Laccaria vinaceoavellanea Hongo, Lactarius deliciosus(L.:Fr.) Gray, Lactarius hatsudake Tanaka, Lactariushygrophoroides Berk. & M.A. Curtis, Lactariusvolemus Fr., Lentinula edodes (Berk.) Pegler, Leccinumrugosiceps (Peck) Singer, Morchella esculenta Pers.,Russula compacta Frost and Tricholoma sejunctum. TheL. edodes samples were taken from cultivars from theWuding in Chuxiong and Longyang in Baoshan fromYunnan, while solely composite samples were fromBaise in Guangxi province and the Northeast of China.Soil samples were collected in parallel as twopooled samples of topsoil (0–10 cm layer) beneath thefruiting bodies of A. arvensis from grassy stands inthe Bayanhushu site in Inner Mongolia. Details of thegeographical locations of the sampling sites from whichmushrooms and topsoil were collected are given in Fig. 1and Table 1.Preparation of materials. To examine thedistribution of 137Cs and 40K and total K between themorphological parts, individual fruiting bodies wererinsed and separated into caps (with skin) and stipes,but some were examined as whole (Table 1). Beforedrying, the fungal materials were sliced into piecesusing a ceramic knife and pooled to create composite88Saniewski M. et al. Foods and Raw Materials, 2022, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 86–96samples representing each species, sampling locationand time of collection. Mushroom parts were driedat 65°C to constant mass (Ultra FD1000 dehydrator,Ezidri, Australia), finely powdered in a porcelain mortar,passed through an 80-mesh sieve, and stored in screwsealed plastic (low density polyethylene) bags under dryconditions.Two pooled samples of topsoil (0–10 cm layer; 150 gwhole weight each) were cleaned from any visiblepebbles, leaves and twigs, soil samples, air driedunder clean condition, ground (porcelain mortar),sieved (2 mm mesh plastic sieve), and stored in sealedpolyethylene bags.Directly before analysis, the mushroom and soilmaterials were prophylactically deep frozen andlyophilized (Labconco Freeze Dry System, Kansas City,MO, USA) for three days to ensure full dehydration.Instrumental analysis. The analytical methodologyapplied has been presented in detail before [43, 67,68] but a summarized description is given below. Inbrief, activity concentrations of 137Cs, 134Cs and 40Kwere measured using a γ-spectrometer with a coaxialHPGe detector with a relative efficiency of 18% anda resolution of 1.9 keV at 1.332 MeV of 60Co (withassociated electronics) (Detector GC 1819 7500 SL,Canberra Packard, Poland, Warsaw). The measurementsof the fungal materials in this study were preceded byFigure 1 Localization of the sampling sites of mushrooms from the Inner Mongolia and Yunnan provinces in China89Saniewski M. et al. Foods and Raw Materials, 2022, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 86–96Table 1 137Cs and 40K activity concentration (± an instrumental counting error) and estimated K in mushrooms collected fromthe provinces of China137Cs (Bq kg–1 dw) 40K (Bq kg–1 dw) K (g kg–1 dw)(Whole sporocarps) (Whole sporocarps) (Whole sporocarps)Province and species Location Year n# Caps Stipes Caps Stipes Caps StipesInner Mongolia province Xilin Gol LeagueAgaricus arvensis West Ujimqin [1]* 2015 80 < 8.7 19 ± 4 2100 ± 240 1700 ± 250 72 ± 8 58 ± 8A. arvensis Bayanhushu [2] 2015 60 7.2 ± 1.7 7.6 ± 1.7 875 ± 140 1100 ± 140 30 ± 1 37 ± 5A. arvensis Bayanhushu [2] 2014 60 < 4.1 < 7.1 1500 ± 190 1100 ± 180 51 ± 6 37 ± 6Calocybe gambosa Jinhe [3] 2015 14 9.7 ± 1.7 12 ± 2 1250 ± 100 1200 ± 120 43 ± 3 41 ± 4Calvatia gigantea Bayanhushu [2] 2015 4 (10 ± 2) (1400 ± 170) (41 ± 5)Macrolepiota excoriata Bayanhushu [2] 2015 2 15 ± 4 < 23 1600 ± 320 1400 ± 620 55 ± 11 48 ± 21Lepista personata Baiyinhua [4] 2015 10 < 8.7 19 ± 4 1400 ± 93 1300 ± 110 48 ± 3 44 ± 4L. personata Jinshan [5] 2015 10 6.4 ± 1.4 < 4.1 1200 ± 100 1200 ± 110 41 ± 3 41 ± 4Yunnan provinceAuricularia delicate Meng’a, Xishuangbanna [6] 2016 7 (< 1.4) (540 ± 61) (16 ± 2)Baorangia bicolor Mojiang, Pu’er [7] 2015 5 4.9 ± 4.7 WD 1000 ± 200 WD 29 ± 6 WDB. bicolor Yuxi [8] 2015 11 (< 3.6) (900 ± 100) (26 ± 3)Boletus bainiugan Ning’er, Pu’er [9] 2016 5 < 2.8 2.7 ± 0.9 870 ± 88 520 ± 68 25 ± 3 15 ± 2B. bainiugan Jiuxi, Yuxi [10] 2015 17 6.1 ± 1.2 6.6 ± 1.1 WD WD WD WDB. bainiugan Dayingjie, Yuxi [11] 2015 12 < 2.9 WD 810 ± 76 WD 24 ± 2 WDB. bainiugan Ning’er, Pu’er [9] 2016 30 5.3 ± 1.1 < 2.5 780 ± 89 690 ± 66 27 ± 3 24 ± 2Boletus ferrugineus Midu, Dali [13] 2016 10 17 ± 1 13 ± 1 730 ± 85 600 ± 74 21 ± 2 18 ± 2Boletus impolitus Jiuxi, Yuxi [10] 2016 2 41 ± 3 9.5 ± 1.8 1000 ± 130 910 ± 120 29 ± 4 27 ± 3Boletus reticulatus Jiuxi, Yuxi [10] 2015 1 21 ± 6 < 3.1 1500 ± 440 2000 ± 850 44 ± 13 59 ± 25Boletus speciosus Yuxi [8] 2015 7 (5.0 ± 1.1) (720 ± 74) (21 ± 2)Boletus tomentipes Yuxi [8] 2015 12 (69 ± 4) (1300 ± 210) (38 ± 6)B. tomentipes Hongta, Yuxi [12] 2015 7 35 ± 9 < 19 4000 ± 680 1800 ± 520 120 ± 20 53 ± 15Caloboletus calopus Jiuxi,Yuxi [10] 2015 12 < 4.2 WD 960 ± 110 WD 33 ± 4 WDC. calopus Hongta, Yuxi [12] 2015 10 9.8 ± 1.8 WD 1000 ± 110 WD 29 ± 3 WDC. calopus Midu, Dali [13] 2015 11 7.2 ± 1.3 3.2 ± 1.2 640 ± 95 380 ± 78 19 ± 3 11 ± 2Neoboletus brunneissimus Yuxi [8] 2015 11 (< 3.6) (1000 ± 95) (29 ± 3)N. brunneissimus Midu, Dali [13] 2015 9 5.7 ± 1.3 9.6 ± 1.5 940 ± 87 960 ± 91 28 ± 3 28 ± 3Retiboletus griseus Yuxi [8] 2015 10 (4.3 ± 1.4) (1400 ± 94) 41 ± 3R. griseus Luohe, Yuxi [14] 2016 7 9.7 ± 2.7 < 5.4 1300 ± 250 950 ± 140 38 ± 7 28 ± 4R. griseus Midu, Dali [13] 2015 14 9.4 ± 1.3 < 2.6 1100 ± 81 940 ± 73 32 ± 2 28 ± 2Rubroboletus sinicus Jiuxi, Yuxi [13] 2015 9 < 6.2 13 ± 2 1100 ± 160 750 ± 140 37 ± 5 26 ± 5R. sinicus Yuxi [8] 2015 11 < 4.9 WD 1100 ± 140 WD 33 ± 3 WDR. sinicus Jiuxi, Yuxi [10] 2015 9 2.4 ± 0.3 WD 1000 ± 90 WD 32 ± 4 WDSutorius magnificus Dayingjie, Yuxi [11] 2016 7 18 ± 2 45 ± 3 1300 ± 120 1000 ± 120 38 ± 3 29 ± 3Sutorius obscureumbrinus Yuxi [8] 2015 12 (3.9 ± 3.7) (1200 ± 130) (35 ± 4)S. obscureumbrinus Gasa, Xishuangbanna [15] 2016 16 < 2.7 3.0 ± 0.7 1300 ± 100 975 ± 74 45 ± 4 33 ± 3Laccaria vinaceoavellanea Baoshan city, Baoshan [16] 2016 7 (< 3.2) (1200 ± 93) (35 ± 3)Lactarius deliciosus Zhengyuan, Pu’er [17] 2014 5 < 5.3 < 10 800 ± 150 1100 ± 290 23 ± 4 32 ± 8L. deliciosus Lianhuachi, Yuxi [18] 2016 20 8.1 ± 1.6 17 ± 2 580 ± 110 720 ± 140 17 ± 3 21 ± 4Lactarius hatsudake Lianhuachi, Yuxi [18] 2016 10 6.2 ± 1.3 15 ± 3 830 ± 80 710 ± 210 24 ± 2 21 ± 6L. hatsudake Lianhuachi, Yuxi [18] 2016 4 12 ± 3 20 ± 5 1000 ± 160 1100 ± 350 29 ± 5 32 ± 10Lactarius hygrophroides Lianhuachi, Yuxi [18] 2016 2 < 19 WD 1500 ± 64 WD 44 ± 2 WDL. hygrophroides Lianhuachi, Yuxi [18] 2016 6 < 5.0 29 ± 7 1200 ± 140 1400 ± 500 35 ± 4 41 ± 15L. hygrophroides Jiulongchi, Yuxi [19] 2016 9 130 ± 5 60 ± 5 920 ± 150 1300 ± 260 27 ± 4 38 ± 8Lactarius volemus Jiulongchi, Yuxi [19] 2016 17 210 ± 13 67 ± 7 1000 ± 99 760 ± 97 30 ± 23 22 ± 3L. volemus Yongping, Dali [20] 2016 8 < 3.5 6.1 ± 1.6 920 ± 100 830 ± 102 31 ± 3 28 ± 3Lentinus edodes Wuding, Chuxiong [21] 2015 70 5.2 ± 1.4 12 ± 3 810 ± 110 910 ± 270 24 ± 3 27 ± 8L. edodes Longyang, Baoshan [22] 2015 100 12 ± 2 22 ± 4 1200 ± 140 1100 ± 240 35 ± 4 32 ± 7Lentinula edodes Northeast of China 2016 30+ 5.3 ± 1.4 4.5 ± 1.2 880 ± 110 640 ± 88 26 ± 3 19 ± 3L. edodes Baise, Guangxi province [23] 2016 30+ 6.9 ± 1.7 < 3.6 790 ± 110 690 ± 82 23 ± 3 20 ± 2Leccinum rugosiceps Ning’er, Pu’er [9] 2016 30 6.3 ± 1.1 4.0 ± 0.8 815 ± 84 781 ± 90 27 ± 3 27 ± 3Morchella esculenta Midu, Dali [13] 2016 30 (< 3.4) (1200 ± 140) (35 ± 4)Russula compacta Midu, Dali [13] 2016 5 (4.6 ± 1.0) (940 ± 80) (28 ± 2)Boletus sp. Baoshan city, Baoshan [16] 2016 5 8.3 ± 1.4 9.3 ± 1.5 WD WD WD WDBoletus sp. Midu, Dali [13] 2016 7 5.2 ± 1.2 1000 ± 83 29 ± 2Boletus sp. Midu, Dali [13] 2016 6 5.9 ± 1.2 1200 ± 92 35 ± 390Saniewski M. et al. Foods and Raw Materials, 2022, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 86–96Boletus sp. Baoshan city, Baoshan [16] 2016 9 9.0 ± 1.2 690 ± 78 20 ± 2Boletus sp. Baoshan city, Baoshan [16] 2016 5 < 2.7 3.0 ± 0.7 1300 ± 100 975 ± 74 39 ± 3 29 ± 2Boletus sp. Midu, Dali [13] 2016 6 7.7 ± 1.7 1100 ± 130 32 ± 4Boletus sp. Changning, Baoshan [24] 2016 5 5.7 ± 1.4 860 ± 98 25 ± 3Boletus sp. Baoshan city, Baoshan [16] 2016 7 9.6 ± 1.4 760 ± 96 22 ± 3Boletus sp. Baoshan city, Baoshan [16] 2016 6 < 4.1 780 ± 110 23 ± 3Boletus sp. Changning, Baoshan [24] 2016 7 9.6 ± 2.2 1100 ± 150 32 ± 4Boletus sp. Baoshan city, Baoshan [16] 2016 5 7.9 ± 1.4 790 ± 100 23 ± 3Boletus sp. Midu, Dali [13] 2016 6 6.0 ± 1.5 1100 ± 120 32 ± 3Boletus sp. Changning, Baoshan [24] 2016 6 4.4 ± 0.9 960 ± 73 28 ± 2Boletus sp. Changning, Baoshan [24] 2016 5 7.4 ±1.4 810 ± 93 24 ± 3Boletus sp. Changning, Baoshan [24] 2016 7 18 ± 2 990 ± 97 29 ± 3Tricholoma sejunctum Liqi, Yuxi [25] 2016 14 7.7 ± 2.0 6.3 ± 2.0 1400 ± 140 1700 ± 170 41 ± 4 50 ± 5T. sejunctum Yiwanshui, Yuxi [26] 2016 20 9.0 ± 1.4 23 ± 1 1400 ± 92 1200 ± 79 41 ± 3 35 ± 2T. sejunctum Lianhuachi, Yuxi [18] 2016 5 20 ± 3 15 ± 4 2000 ± 270 1900 ± 340 59 ± 8 56 ± 10*ID of the sampling site (see also in Fig. 1); #Quantity of specimens (fruit bodies) in a pool; WD – without databackground measurement (time 80 000 s) and countingtime was similar (> 22 h).The instrument was calibrated using a multiisotopestandard by validated methodology. Thereference solution (Standard solution of gamma emittingisotopes, code BW/Z-63/48/16), obtained from the IBJŚwierknear Otwock in Poland, was used to preparereference samples for equipment calibration. Theradionuclides used in the reference solution duringequipment calibration were 241Am (1.2%), 109Cd (2.1%),57Co (0.80%), 51Cr (1.55%), 113Sn (2.0%), 85Sr (1.2%),137Cs (1.5%), 54Mn (1.55%), 65Zn (1.2%) and 60Co(0.8%). The same geometry of cylindrical dishes with a40-mm diameter was used for the analysis of the fungalmaterial extracts as well as for the reference samplesduring equipment calibration organized by IAEARML-2018-01. Detailed results of the intercalibration areavailable in the publication [50].Minimum detectable activity was determinedby the Currie method. This method is based on twobasic parameters: (a) critical level, which is definedas a level below which the detection signal cannot bereliably recognized and (b) detection limit specifyingthe smallest signal that can be quantitatively reliable.The measurement results obtained were recalculatedfor dehydrated materials and decay corrected back tothe time of collection. Total potassium content wascalculated from the original 40K activity concentrationdata (using mean value of 29.32 Bq g–1) in natural K,which is in the range from 27.33 to 31.31 Bq g–1 of K(percentage abundance of 40K atoms in natural K is0.0117%) [51].RESULTS AND DISCUSSION137Cs and 134Cs in mushrooms and soil. All speciescollected from Inner Mongolia in this study weresaprobic. 134Cs activity was not detected in any of thestudy samples. It was possibly due to the negligibleimpact from the Fukushima’s fallout in 2011 as wells asa relatively short half-life of this isotope (t0.5 = 2.1 years)and small impacts from the Chernobyl’s fallout in 1986and preceding, the nuclear weapons detonations in theatmosphere.The values of the activity concentration of 137Csin caps and stipes of the fruiting bodies of Agaricusarvensis, Calocybe gambosa, Lepista personata andMacrolepiota excoriata and in the whole fruitingbodies of C. gigantea were in the range from < 4.1 to19 ± 4 Bq kg–1 dw (Table 1). There is no prior datafor these species from regions of Asia other thanInner Mongolia [44, 53, 54]. The low levels of 137Cscontamination in the studied mushrooms from the InnerMongolian region reflects low activities of this nuclide inlocal soils as well as a lower potential of these species tobio-accumulate this nuclide.In this study, a composite sample of the upper(0–10 cm) layer of soil collected in parallel withA. arvensis from the Bayanhushu site (altitude 920m a.s.l.) showed 137Cs activity concentration of6.8 ± 0.7 Bq kg–1 dw. This result obtained for the samplefrom 2015 is around 2 to 4-fold lower than earlier resultscited for topsoils collected in Inner Mongolia in 1982–1987, and is close to the activity values reported in1–5 cm layer of forest topsoils sampled from theChangning and Mengman sites in Yunnan in 2016(4.9 ± 0.6 and 7.5 ± 0.7 Bq kg–1 dw) [53].Because of colder weather in the mountains,soil and the mushrooms can be specifically affectedwith radiocaesium, which is scavenged from thecontaminated plumes by wet precipitation [53–55].Forest topsoil collected at 3000 m above sea level fromthe Minya Konka (Gongga Shan) mountain in Sichuanprovince of China in 2012 showed 137Cs at level from41 ± 1 to 79 ± 2 Bq kg–1 dw. This result is well in excess137Cs (Bq kg–1 dw) 40K (Bq kg–1 dw) K (g kg–1 dw)(Whole sporocarps) (Whole sporocarps) (Whole sporocarps)Province and species Location Year n# Caps Stipes Caps Stipes Caps StipesContinuation of the Table 191Saniewski M. et al. Foods and Raw Materials, 2022, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 86–96of what has been noted in topsoil from Inner Mongoliain this study or other studies of soils from China [32,33, 53].As given in Table 1, the determined activityconcentrations of 137Cs in fruiting bodies of the saprobicand perhaps a little parasitic species of Auriculariadelicate, the caps and stipes of fruiting bodies of thesaprobic decomposer Lentinula edodes, the saprobicMorchella esculenta as well as over 20 species ofmycorrhizal mushrooms collected in Yunnan were lowand roughly in the range of values noted in mushroomsfrom Inner Mongolia.The only exception was individuals of Lactariushygrophoroides collected from the region of Jiulongchiin Yuxi prefecture in central Yunnan in the summer of2016. They showed activity concentrations of 137Cs from130 ± 5 to 210 ± 13 Bq kg dw–1 in caps and from 60 ± 5to 67 ± 7 Bq kg dw–1 in stipes (Table 1). These relativelyhigh levels of 137Cs activity in L. hygrophoroidesfrom the Jiulongchi site were in the range ofactivities determined previously in several speciesof ectomycorrhizal mushrooms collected at 2900–3600 m above sea level from the Minya Konka summitin 2012 [53].Many other species of mushrooms collected fromthe prefecture of Yuxi and across other regions fromYunnan and elsewhere in China (Zhangzhou in theFujian province) in 2010‒2018 were substantiallyless contaminated than L. hygrophoroides from theJiulongchi site or even mushrooms from the subalpineregions on the eastern slope of the Minya Konka summit[12, 16, 42, 44, 47, 52, 53, 56]. The exception wasTurbinellus floccosus (Schwein.) Earle ex Giachini &Castellano [previous name Gomphus floccosus (Schw.)Singer] collected from the region of Mangshi (98°24’ E,24°22’ N) in the western part of Yunnan during August2012 to July 2013, which showed a 137Cs activityconcentration of 212 (148–339) Bq kg–1 dw in the wholefruiting bodies [44, 57].Elevated activity concentrations of 137Cs inL. hygrophoroides from the Jiulongchi site in thisstudy can possibly be explained by weather conditions(episodic rain) scavenging nuclides from the radioactiveplume after the Fukushima (Japan) nuclear power plantaccident in early 2011.The radioactive incident took place in Tongchuan,Shaanxi Province, south of the central region of InnerMongolia (approximate distance from the samplingsites mushrooms there is 1200 km). Some 137Cs from ameasuring instrument (lead ball – a major component ofa nuclear scale) when dismantling a cement factory hasgone missing. In a later investigation, radioactivity from137Cs was found at a steel refinery in Shaanxi’s Fupingcounty. Possibly, a lead ball with scrap metal was melteddown into the steel [58]. Information on possible, if any,ground pollution in the region from this accident is notavailable.A recent (2021) study showed that the activityconcentration of 137Cs in 66 out of 68 of wild mushrooms(17 species) collected from the northeast regions ofChina in 2017‒2020 ranged from < 0.6 to 26 Bq kg–1 dw(data rounded), and only in single Lactarius deliciosusand Lepista nuda (Bull.) Cooke specimens collected in2020, was 46 ± 3 Bq kg–1 dw and 130 ± 9 Bq kg–1 dw,respectively [59].The maximum activity concentration of 137Cs notedin L. nuda in the above mentioned study was close tovalues determined in Lactarius hygrophroides andLactarius volemus from Jiulongchi, Yuxi (Yunnan)(Table 1), while the results are not very comparabledue to only two single specimens examined by Wanget al. [59].The radiocaesium contamination of land, the oceansand biota, including edible wild growing mushroomshas thus far, occurred in three main waves. The firstone arose from the nuclear weapons detonations inthe atmosphere in the period from 1945 to 1980 andresulted in wide-spread aerial diffusion of radiocaesiumand other nuclides including 14C, 137Cs, 90Sr, 239–240Pu,241Am and 3H [60]. With time, the resulting depositionsof longer lasting 137Cs affected every region of theworld [1, 60].Data on radiocaesium in mushrooms for theperiod before 1986 is scarce [10–13, 42, 61]. Fifteenyears before the Chernobyl accident, a solelyfruiting body of Tricholoma terreum collectedfrom the Czech Republic in 1971 showed 137Cs ata level of 40 Bq kg–1 dw [61]. Additional historicaldata on 137Cs in mushrooms was recorded in 1984,in Poland for the Poison Pax (Paxillus involutus),which showed 137Cs at a level of 2700 Bq kg–1 dw,with lower levels noted for the King Bolete (Boletusedulis) (95 and 104 Bq kg–1 dw) and Slippery Jack,Suillus luteus (125 and 150 Bq kg–1 dw) collected in 1984and 1985, respectively [10].Data on the radiocaesium concentration activitiesaccumulated in wild mushrooms growing in Asia fromthe period before the Chernobyl accident are absent inthe available literature. Effectively, there is also nothingpublished on radiocaesium in wild mushrooms frommainland Asia in the period between the Chernobyl andFukushima incidents.The Chernobyl emission of radioactivity causedan extreme and long-lasting radiocaesium pollutionof wild growing mushrooms in the regions of Europe,and particularly in the neighbor areas collapsednuclear power plant [12, 16, 17, 62–65]. Japaneseresearchers have published a large volume of data onartificial radioactivity accumulated in wild mushroomsgrowing in the country, both from the post-Chernobyland post-Fukushima emissions, which have recentlybeen evaluated by Komatsu et al. and Prand-Stritzkoand Steinhauser [25, 66]. The activity in these wildmushrooms collected in the period up to March 2011was largely from accumulated radiocaesium (137Cs) dueto the global fallout from nuclear weapons detonations,with a small proportion being attributed to theChernobyl emissions [54]. The more recent emissions92Saniewski M. et al. Foods and Raw Materials, 2022, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 86–96from the Fukushima incident changed the pattern ofradionuclide contamination of wild mushrooms in Japan.However, as shown in this study (Table 1) and in a fewother reports, the emissions could have only a smallimpact on mainland Asia or elsewhere [44, 53, 68–69].40K and K in mushrooms and soil. The topsoil fromthe Bayanhushu site showed 40K activity concentrationof 595 ± 41 Bq kg–1 dw and total K content of 17 000 ±1000 mg kg–1 dw, which were higher than previouslydetermined in topsoils sampled from several forestedareas in Yunnan (150 ± 14 to 340 ± 19 Bq kg–1 dw) [53].In the study by Zhang et al., the means of 40Kactivity concentrations in topsoils (0–10 cm) inInner Mongolia and Yunnan in 1982–1987 were755 (866–1066 Bq kg–1 dw) and 487 Bq kg–1 dw(149–1010 Bq kg–1 dw), respectively [70]. In anothernational survey performed during 1983–1990, thearea-weighted mean and the point-weighted mean of40K were 655.6 and 624.6 Bq kg–1 dw, respectively,for soils in Inner Mongolia, while the two values forsoils from Yunnan were 532.0 and 518.6 Bq kg–1 dw,respectively [71].The activity concentrations of 40K in mushroomsfrom Inner Mongolia were in the range of 875 ± 140 to1600 ± 320 Bq kg–1 dw in caps and from 1100 ± 180 to1400 ± 620 Bq kg–1 dw in stipes (Table 1). In the caseof mushrooms from Yunnan, A. delicate (ear-likejelly fungus), which grows on wood, they had a loweractivity concentration of 40K (540 ± 61 Bq kg–1 dw)than L. edodes (Table 1), which also grows on wood.The L. edodes showed activities in the range of790 ± 110 to 1200 ± 140 Bq kg–1 dw in the caps,which are culinary valued, and from 640 ± 88 to1100 ± 240 Bq kg–1 dw in the stipes, which are largelydiscarded. This species collected from Yunnanand examined by other authors, demonstrated themean value of 40K activity concentration to be629 Bq kg–1 dw (from 396 to 1010 Bq kg–1 dw; n = 11)[44]. 40K values in the caps of terrestrial mushroomsfrom Yunnan were from 580 ± 110 Bq kg–1 dw inL. deliciosus to 4000 ± 680 Bq kg–1 dw in Boletustomentipes, while stipes showed activities from 380 ±78 Bq kg–1 dw in L. deliciosus to 1900 ± 340 Bq kg–1 dwin Tricholoma sejunctum.Potassium (total K) is the major metallic elementin mushrooms and occurs in dried fungal materials inquantities of up to several percent, while the naturalnuclide 40K forms only a small proportion (makes up0.012%) of the total. Hence, mushrooms collected fromareas that are only mildly affected by 137Cs depositionsor mushrooms without a high species-specific ability tobioconcentrate this nuclide, e.g. like some species fromthe genus Cortinarius, contained natural 40K in highexcess relative to 137Cs (Table 1) [12].The amounts of K in the caps, stipes, or wholefruiting bodies of the species in this study werein the range 16 000 to 120 000 mg kg–1 dw (1.6 to12 g kg–1 dw). Potassium is indispensable formushrooms, for the uptake and osmotic regulationof water in the cytoplasm of cells and is a co-factor incertain enzymes [72]. However, the same species, i.e.A. arvensis, Boletus bainiugan, Retiboletus griseus,Rubroboletus sinicus, Caloboletus calopus, L. hygrophoroides,L. edodes and T. sejunctum collected fromdifferent sites could differ around twofold in the contentof K (Table 1).The daily adequate intake of K for adults is 2300 mgfor females and 3400 mg for males [73]. Thus, themushroom species examined in this study and assumingabsorption rate at around 90% could be considered aspotentially good sources of dietary potassium, especiallywhen stir-fried with oil, which is a common culinarytechnique in SW China [67].Potential risk from ionizing radiation doses. Inthis study, a total of 70 lots of several species of ediblemushrooms collected from 26 locations in Yunnanwere examined and in 63 lots, the contaminationwith 137Cs of the caps or the whole mushrooms waswell below 20 Bq kg–1 dw (Table 1). There werethree of 70 lots that were more contaminated with137Cs than the others. Those lots were the gilledmushroom B. tomentipes (of 69 ± 4 Bq kg–1 dw),caps of the lamellar mushroom L. hygrophoroides(130 ± 5 Bq kg–1 dw), and caps of lamellar L. volemus(210 ± 13 Bq kg–1 dw) (Table 1). Assuming that themoisture content in fruiting bodies is 90%, the estimated137Cs activities in these three species were 6.9, 13, and21 Bq kg–1 on a wet weight basis. Therefore, theseamounts were much lower than the maximum permittedlevels for import of mushrooms from third countries[specific 13 countries affected by the Chernobyl’sradioactive fallout for which the regulation applies] tothe European Union (600 Bq kg–1) [74].In Yunnan, the main way to cook mushrooms is stirfryingin vegetable oil in a wok pan [75]. It is interestingthat stir-fried mushroom meals showed about 2 to 5-foldhigher activity concentrations of 137Cs than the rawmushrooms on a whole weight (wet) basis [67, 68].Therefore, a 100-g portion of stir-fried L. volemuscaps from the most contaminated lot in this studycould include from 4.2 to 10.5 Bq of 137Cs (equivalent toionizing radiation dose from 56×10–3 to 140×10–3 μSv percapita or 0.49×10–3 to 2.35×10–3 μSv per kg body mass;60 kg body mass). These estimates are low, taking intoaccount the risk associated with the doses of ionizingradiation received by consumers in Yunnan, even if stirfriedmushrooms are consumed daily for longer periodsduring the mushrooming season.In comparison, the natural 40K nuclide containedin mushrooms (Table 1) introduces much higher dosesof ionizing radiation than 137Cs for locals in InnerMongolia and Yunnan provinces but is not considered asa hazardous nuclide for consumers due to homeostasis ofK in human body.CONCLUSIONThe activity concentrations of 137Cs in lamellarmushrooms from the Inner Mongolia province of Chinaand the local soil were low. 137Cs contamination of thelamellar and gilled mushrooms from Yunnan province inChina was also low, i.e. well below one tenth of statutorylimits, and mushroom meals there can be considered as anegligible source of 137Cs for their consumers.In view of the results from this study, the accidentin the Fukushima nuclear power plant had little ornegligible effect on radioactive contamination of edibleand medicinal fungi in the regions of China. Naturalnuclide 40K contained in mushrooms is not consideredas hazardous for mushroom meal consumers. Wildmushrooms can be considered as a good source ofdietary potassium for consumers.CONTRIBUTIONMichał Saniewski: resources, methodology,investigation, validation, data curation and analysis,writing – review & editing. Jerzy Falandysz:conceptualization, resources, investigation, formalanalysis, data curation, graphics, supervision, writing –original draft, writing – review & editing. TamaraZalewska: resources, methodology, investigation,validation, data curation and analysis.CONFLICT OF INTERESTThe authors declare no conflict of interests regardingthe publication of this article.

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